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Israel – Syria conflict: Golan Heights Dispute
The issue started with Israel’s annexation of the Golan Heights which has become Israel’s main source of water since 1967. Israel has declared Golan Heights, which lies within Syrian territory, as its own territorial jurisdiction. This has not gained international recognition. A peace talk with the United States as mediator experienced a stalemate for 8 years until the two disputing sides agreed to hold another conference with Turkey as mediator. A ceasefire within the two sides was set up with the UN Peacekeeping Force as the third party, which has direct mandate from the UN Security Council. Recently the Security Council gave its mandate to the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) for the next 6 months until 31 December 2008 to reach a re-negotiation between Israel and Syria.
On 6 October 1973 war erupted in the Middle East between Egyptian and Israeli forces in the Suez Canal area and the Sinai, and between Israeli and Syrian forces on the Golan Heights. On 24 October, as fighting between Egypt and Israel reached a critical stage, the Security Council decided to set up a second United Nations Emergency Force UNEF II. The Force was immediately moved into place between the Israeli and Egyptian armies in the Suez Canal area, and its arrival effectively stabilized the situation. In the Israel-Syria sector tension remained high, and from March 1974 the situation became increasingly unstable. Against this background, the United States undertook a diplomatic initiative, which resulted in the conclusion of an Agreement on Disengagement (S/11302/Add.1, annexes I and II between Israeli and Syrian forces. The Agreement provided for an area of separation and for two equal zones of limited forces and armaments on both sides of the area, and called for the establishment of a United Nations observer force to supervise its implementation. The Agreement was signed on 31 May 1974 and, on the same day, the Security Council adopted resolution 350 (1974) by which it set up the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF). The Force has since performed its functions effectively, with the cooperation of the parties. The situation in the Israel-Syria sector has remained quiet. Both parties cooperate fully with the mission and for a number of years there have been no serious incidents.
In order to carry out its mandate, UNDOF maintains an area of separation, which is some 80 kilometers long and varies in with between approximately 10 kilometers in the centre to less than one kilometer in the extreme south. The terrain is hilly and is dominated in the north by Mount Harmon. The highest United Nations position is at an altitude of 2,800 meters. The area of separation is inhabited and is policed by the Syrian authorities. No military forces other than UNDOF are permitted within it. Another priority for the mission is to address the environmental consequences of the Force’s activities and presence in the area of operations. The Force is taking steps to ensure that its presence does not contribute to further environmental pollution of the area. Although Syria was invited in November 2007 to the Annapolis peace conference on the Middle East, a clear Israeli-Syrian track parallel to the Israeli-Palestinian track was not apparent. However, on 21 May Israel and Syria confirmed rumors that they had been indirectly negotiating with Turkey’s mediation. The two sides said they would “conduct dialogue in a serious and continuous manner with the aim of reaching a comprehensive peace.” This announcement was welcomed by the Secretary-General. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert said the process would be long, complex and could end in “difficult concessions.” Syria seeks the return of the Golan Heights. It seems that for Israel a major issue would be the severing of Syrian ties with Iran, Hamas and Hezbollah.
Based on recent events that happened in Israel, both Israel and Syria held four rounds of indirect negotiations under Turkey’s mediation. Unfortunately until now this negotiation hasn’t shown a significant progress. Israel still stands with its position to keep its lake’s vital water supplies in Golan area, a demand that Syria totally rejected and it has caused a brutal reaction from Syria which makes the tension between two parties increase. Furthermore, the last report in late August 2008 states that three of the UNDOF armies were found dead in the UNDOF zone, close to the borders of Lebanon near Mount Hermon, after being kidnapped for five weeks. This situation has increased the tension, forcing urgency for UNSC and its members to call upon a meeting. For this session, the meeting will discuss further decisions for Golan Heights dispute; what is the best solution, and to whom Golan will belong to since Syria has betrayed the previous mandate for peacekeeping.
The conflict started since November 1989 when South Ossetia declares its autonomy from the Georgian Soviet Socialistic Republic, triggering three months of fighting. The conflict that ensued resulted in death toll of around 1,000 people and refugees numbering tens of thousands. It has left South Ossetia seperated from Georgia but still unrecognized except as a part of a Georgian state according to international law. The situation at the end of the 1980s was characterized by a massive wave of nationalist euphoria and political turmoil, leading to independence in April 1991. Primarily, the leader of the independence movement (the 1st president of Georgia), Zviad Gamsakhurdia, based his popularity on a nationalist agenda. The agenda was directed against the imposed Soviet or Russian communist rule, but it also manifasted itself as greater Georgian nationalism at the expense of the minority groups of Georgia. In this atmosphere of heightened and often antagonistic Georgian nationalism, the South Ossetian felt threatened and they began to organize themselves. From December 1990 until 1992, Georgia and South Ossetia began a new armed conflict. The conflict continues until June 1992 when Russian, Georgian and South Ossetian leaders meet in Sochi, when they signed an armistice and agree of the creation of tripartite peacekeeping force of 500 soldiers from each entity. One of the most violent confrontation happened in Tskhinvali. A state of emergency was declared by the Georgian parliament in the Tskhinvali and Java region of South Ossetia on 12th December 1990. The troops from Russia and Georgia were dispatched and the commander of the Georgian MVD troops was appointed as the mayor of Tskhinvali. According to South Ossetian sources, the Georgian militia started disarming the South Ossetian militia with the consent of Moscow.
In November 1993, South Ossetia drafted its own constitution. The situation lasted as a reminder of the war. The Georgian set in the hills around Tskhinvali, besieging the city and other fightings took place around the city along the road to north Ossetia. According to South Ossetian sources, 115 villages and settlements were burnt down during the conflict. In August 1991, in connections to the failed coup attempt in Moscow, the Soviet Union dissolves but the Russian MVD troops stay. In late December the same year, internal fighting erupts in Tbilisi between opposition and government forces. Georgian military attention shifted towards the capital. Gamsakhurdia is ousted from power and interim state council as created which in March 1992 appoints Edward Shevardnadze as its chairman.
In the spring of 1992, the fighting escalates with sporadic Russian involvement until June 24, 1992 when Shevardnadze and Russian president, Boris Yeltsin, meet to discuss the question of South Ossetian and a ceasefire. A ceasefire is agreed upon and on July 14, 1992, a CIS peacekeeping operation began, consisting of a joint control commission and joint CIS-Georgian-South Ossetian military patrols.
In November 1996, South Ossetia elected its first president, Ludwig Chibirov. After that major breakthrough, numerous small steps of cooperation between the bordering local Georgian authorities and South Ossetian authorities happened, such as cooperation in electricity supplies, irrigation programs, law enforcement cooperation, reconstruction of the road system, etc.
The situation remained stable and mainly peaceful until November 2006 when South Ossetia overwhelmingly endorses its split with Tbilisi in a referendum. The conflict heat up when Georgia’s Prime Minister stated that this is part of a Russian campaign to stoke a war. The situation is getting worst in April 2007 when the Georgia’s parliament approves a law to create a temporary administration in South Ossetia, which resulting in a tension raised with Russia. Two months later South Ossetian separatist says that Georgia had attacked Tskhinvali with mortar and sniper fire. However, Tbilisi denies the news. In March 2008, South Ossetia asks the world its independent from Georgia following the West support for Kosovo succession from Serbia. A month later, Georgia proposes a power sharing deal with full autonomy for South Ossetia, but later it is rejected by South Ossetia, which insisted on full independence. In August 2008, the fighting breaks out between Georgia and separatist South Ossetian forces. Georgia says that its forces have ‘freed’ the greater part of the Ossetian capital, Tskhinvali.
The further UNSC meeting is to address several matters such as territorial integrity and the final status of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, particularly in the light of Russia’s recognition of their independence.
*a number of the data written above has been added by the organizing committe as a scenario for the simulation. More information will be explained by the lecturer in classes.
Eritrea and Ethiopia
“Reconstructing a New Peace Reconciliation Policy”
The war that happened in Eritrea had started since 1962, when Ethiopia annexed Eritrea territory. Eritrea had fought a long war for independence against Ethiopia, and finally reached the point where international people ask for a referendum and peaceful separation in 1993. After the independence, the two parties disagreed over currency and trade issues and claim several border regions, such as Badme, Tsorona-Zalambessa, and Bure. However, since the two governments were close allies they agreed to set up a commission to look into their common border and disputed places. Since early 1991 they had agreed to set up a commission to look into each others’ claims.
In 1998, during unharmed situation the Eritrean soldiers entered the Badme region. And caused a fight in that region. This fight has lead into a worst case scenario of war between both of the states, especially in those regions. Later in 2005, International Claims Commission that this war was started by Eritrean. The war resulted in approximately 100.000 people dead and an uncountable numbers of refugees. The irony of these Eritrean and Ethiopian war was the vast budget they have spent for the war in 1998-2000. Meanwhile, both of the countries are categorized as the poorest country in the world.
During the middle of 1999, both Ethiopia and Eritrea had accepted a peace plan brokered by the Organization for African Unity (OAU) in principle. However, they disagreed on implementation issues and blamed on each other on various things, from whom started the conflict, to who was not committing to the peace process, thereby making peace harder to come by.
In mid 2000, both of the state decided to sign The Algiers Agreement. Therefore, Ethiopians agreed to have demilitarized zone. This action was also monitored by UN Security Council by UNMEE. Both of the government reached their final agreement on late 2000. But unfortunately, the situation after the agreement does not work as the plan. Even so, in 2002, UNSC decided to give them sanctions to both side of the party if none of them agreed or at least following the Algier Agreement.
Today, based in the mandate of UNSC the UNMEE peacekeeping troops, starts to dismiss their personnel back to their own country. And the last uniformed member of UNMEE was expected to be out of the region by the end of September. According to the result for terminat the UNMEE works, the spoke person of UN’s sec.gen Ban Ki-Moo said : “The Secretary-General regrets this decision by the parties, but welcomes the decision of the Council to continue to remain actively seized of the matter,” the Spokesperson said. “He also expresses hope that the parties would be able break the current stalemate and create conditions necessary for the normalization of their relations, which is key to peace and stability in the region. The Secretary-General reaffirms that his offer of good offices remains available to the parties to help them implement the Algiers Agreements.”
Although some agreement has been made by the UN and both countries, no real effort has been made to produce new policy guidelines, even after the 1999 political changes in Sudan, which limited the influence of the more radical Islamic fundamentalists within the regime. U.S. activities plausibly suggest drift, misconception, and a failure of policy. Israeli interests in the Red Sea and concerns over Sudanese “terrorism” may be policy issues in themselves, but they do not provide any realistic basis for understanding the Ethiopian-Eritrean war, or the regional concerns of Ethiopia and Eritrea, or even the wider issues, including security, political, and humanitarian concerns. However, the peace building, humanitarian and famine relief is urged to continue. A limited number of countries have contributed in offering assistance in peace building and humanitarian aid. Whilst other countries – from Russia, China, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Italy, France and open markets – still increasingly provide arms purchase to both countries despite the arms embargo from the UN (May 2000). These arm purchases have been causing food shortage to Eritrea and Ethiopia to worsen and additionally increasing the tension between the conflicting parties.
Furthermore, reports in late August 2008 state that besides the fact that both countries have deployed their arms in border areas specifically near by the sensitive area of Badme, Ethiopia has increased their number of troops near those areas, reaching up to 1,538 troops, whilst on the other hand, Eritrea has also increased their number of troops up to 1,200 troops, hence building the tension. UNSC will discuss the reconciliation in the next meeting; focusing on the control of arms supply towards Ethiopia and Eritrea, as well as settling agreements upon the clarification of these border areas.
*a number of the data written above has been added by the organizing committe as a scenario for the simulation. More information will be explained by the lecturer in classes.
